![]() In intentional gesturing, signallers have a goal and influence the recipient flexibly based on an understanding that recipients have goal states different from their own and these states can affect their behaviour ( Tomasello and Zuberbühler 2002). ![]() Gestural communication is particularly relevant for studies of social cognition because gestures can influence social bonding through intentional behaviour or emotional expression and this may have important implications for the complexity of cognitive skills involved in managing of social relationship. 2005 Pollick and de Waal 2007 Roberts et al. 2013 Hewes 1973 Hobaiter and Byrne 2011a Leavens et al. 1984) is important in maintaining social relationships of primates ( Bard 1992 Bard et al. In addition, gestural communication, defined as voluntary movements of the arms, head, body postures and locomotory gaits ( Bard 1992 Hewes 1973 Roberts et al. The time and cognitive demands arising from maintaining social relationships through grooming result in a multilevel group structure, with hierarchically nested layers of social bonds, delineated by decreasing amounts of time spent in grooming behaviour ( Hill et al. Primates use grooming behavior to maintain stable, long lasting, and differentiated social relationships with both related and unrelated individuals ( Dunbar 2010). The relationship between brain size and group size may be influenced by the demands arising from maintaining social relationships in primates. Thus, primates living in larger groups have larger neorcortex ratios ( Dunbar and Shultz 2007a). In particular, there is a strong positive correlation between group size and brain size in primates, and particularly neocortex size in relation to the rest of the brain ( Dunbar 1993). It has been proposed that the sociality of primates is cognitively demanding, leading to evolution of large brains in both primates and hominins ( Dunbar and Shultz 2007a). Primate sociality is based on bonded social relationships where individuals repeatedly interact with the same group members in many different contexts ( Freeberg et al. Primate social life has frequently been described as particularly complex in its nature and when compared with other vertebrates, primates have unusually large brains for their body size ( Dunbar 1993 Dunbar 1998). Intentional gestural communication plays an important role in regulating social interactions in complex primate societies. Central individuals in the social network received higher rates of persistence, but not rapid sequence or single gesture. Pairs of chimpanzees that spent a longer duration of time in proximity had higher rates of persistence, but not a higher rate of single gesture or rapid sequences. We used social network analysis to examine how the production of single gestures and sequences of gestures was related to the duration of time spent in proximity and individual differences in proximity in wild East African chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Previous studies examined behavioral reactions to single gestures and sequences, but whether this complexity is associated with more complex sociality at the level of the dyad partner and the group as a whole is not well understood. Gestures play a key role in this process and chimpanzees show considerable flexibility communicating through single gestures, sequences of gestures interspersed with periods of response waiting (persistence) and rapid sequences where gestures are made in quick succession, too rapid for the response waiting to have occurred. A key challenge for primates is coordinating behavior with conspecifics in large, complex social groups.
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